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| Abstract.
This article discusses the rationale for incorporating genealogy
into family therapy, explores related cultural and ethical
issues, and gives examples of techniques. A Bowenian systems
theoretical framework is assumed. The article touches upon
the elements of genetics, culture, spirit, and emotion, as
they relate to family narratives. [Twenty-three references]
[Frame-free]
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Families
are products of the society or societies which weave them, and
they transmit the social strengths and frailties of those larger
social institutions. While ancestry does not in any sense determine
destiny, cognition of collective family experiences shapes development
of individual and collective consciousness in crucial ways. Narratives
from the family tree, often grasped only partially or at a deep
preconscious or symbolic level, can form the spiritual and social
strands which make up the basic building blocks of families and
societies much as the double-helix DNA comprises the more tangible
building blocks of carbon-based life.
There can
be little dispute that persons and family systems carry within
them the roots of identity constructed through a multi-generational
maturational process which involves genetics, culture, spirit,
and emotion. These four core elements, perhaps plus others, but
essentially these, are viewed by this writer as keys to self-knowledge
and processes of therapy. Information gathered through genealogical
research can shed light on each of these areas, to aid in identity
clarification and individuation.
The resulting
construct of identity, for both families and individuals, is the
lens through which human existence and experience is filtered
and defined. By attending to and perpetuating family story patterns,
honoring rituals and traditions which carry meaning, the bonds
of blood and love are strengthened and systems function to perpetuate
the species and the divers values which gave them rise, and at
a higher level has given rise to societies and human civilization
as a whole.
Beginning
to learn about one's heritage, even by speaking with available
older relatives about their pasts, can help facilitate self-awareness
as a member of a group and provide a bridge to a forgotten cultural
base, empowering individuals and family systems to confirm or
reweave their values, identify patterns, and make changes in personal,
family and cultural activities; all of which in turn may give
hope for curing present social ills.
Champagne
(1990) found that structured genealogical exercises benefited
some clients in her clinical mental health practice. "Like
most counseling techniques, genealogical search counseling is
not for all clients. The client's presenting problems, personality,
and motivation all need to be taken into account before encouraging
such an effort," she wrote. Champagne added, "With selected
populations research into one's family history can serve as a
foundation for personal healing, family communications, and personal
growth" (p. 85).
Master family
therapist Michael White uses a technique of helping family members
"re-author" the manner in which they view and experience
a wide range of problems and situations, such as child behavioral
problems and fears, grief, separation anxiety, encopresis, anorexia
nervosa, intellectual disability, schizophrenia, children in residential
care, sexual abuse, and men who are violent (Hart, 1995).
Family patterns
of repeated cut-offs, such as divorces, abandonments, or deaths,
are significant information to family therapists. Survival themes
may also be identified.
Writing about
the analysis of society and culture from a Jungian perspective,
Vergolias (1996) observed: "Within the family therapy context,
Murray Bowen (1966) opened psychology's oedipally blind eyes to
the skeletons hiding within the familial closet, skeletons not
only of the living souls, but also of the ancestors from generations
before. These skeletons remain unreal, unpractical, until we till
through the fertile history of our familial past. Words, in the
same manner, have a history, an ancestral past, and by uncovering
the top-soil and tilling the roots of this etymological earth,
we find the myths and meanings hidden within. What appears on
the surface may allow us to convey practical meaning, but it is
what lies underneath which provides breadth and depth of understanding."
Gibson (1994)
provides an example of using the genealogical search "to
solidify my own sense of identity and process of differentiation."
Gibson relates her experience and information gathered in a trip
to her birthplace in Illinois to locate as many family members
as possible. "I went to the area where my parents had met
and to where my ancestors had immigrated. I retraced their past
and mine by visiting where they lived and the people that they
knew to learn where I had come from. I used Bowen's methodology
in that I listened and observed 'at least partially outside the
emotional field of the family,'" she explains.
In a training
aid for library scientists entitled "Helping patrons with
genealogy: Understanding genealogists," staff at the Marguerite
deAngeli Library (1998) in Lapeer County, Michigan are given the
following information concerning the interest genealogy holds
for family therapists and sociologists in particular:
The
use of family history and genograms for the professional development
of counselors was first popularized in the 1950s and 1960s by
Dr. Murray Bowen; he felt that the family therapist "must
have a thorough understanding of his own position in the family;
otherwise, his unresolved conflicts would obscure his ability
to identify and counsel clients who required his professional
objectivity" (Curtis[, 1984, p.] 36). Use of genograms
continues to be advocated by many counselor educators, who believe
"that persons in counseling will be able to progress to
no higher level of psychological and emotional health than the
level of their counselor" (Lawson & Gaushell[, 1988,
p.] 162). Genograms have also been used as an educational tool
for clinical sociologists "to introduce students to the
sociological basis of family therapy and to deepen their awareness
of the social transmission of family patterns" (Reed[,
1994, p.] 255).
Said one sociology
student who created a genogram as part of his education: "I
communicated with the dead more surely than had I been in a séance
and saw how their influence still shapes the path that my family
is walking" (Reed[, 1994, p.] 259). And family histories
have also been used by family nurses in order to examine "how
the nurse's personal family background and experiences affect
clinical practice" (Green[, 1983, p.] 191). In addition to
using genograms in self-exploration as a part of counselor education,
genograms are widely used by family therapists, family physicians,
chemical dependency counselors, and others in clinical assessment
of clients as a graphic tool for organizing the mass of information
gathered during a family assessment and exploring patterns in
the family system (McGoldrick & Green, 1986). Other authors
advise medical patients on use of genealogical research techniques
to map inherited diseases, physical traits conducive to disease,
mental health problems, and addictive proclivities to alcohol
and other drugs (Nelson-Anderson & Waters, 1995).
Entrepreneurs like WonderWare, and perhaps others, have capitalized
on the intersecting market segments of genealogists and family therapists,
offering special software for sale on the Internet, inviting the
public to "explore the interpersonal universe at the speed
of enlightenment." But many modern clinicians simply use a
blank notepad, a blackboard, or a simple form to record simple or
complex family patterns and examine inter-generational and inter-personal
trends in clients' family histories on genograms like that portrayed
by Gerlack (1997).
The
growth of the Internet has greatly expanded public access to
information of genealogical value, which was previously only
available by writing to or visiting record repositories or centralized
libraries. One on-line clearinghouse for amateur and professional
genealogists alike is rootsweb.com, which maintains a high-volume
e-mail discussion list on the broad topic of genealogy, called
ROOTS-L. A database search for the word "genogram"
produces few hits, perhaps due to the fact that the list is
not heavily traveled by family therapists. However, in response
to a question about notation on genealogical charts, Kimber
(1994) replied:
A
graphic format that is used in medicine and psychiatry to convey
a lot of information visually is a genogram. A starter source
is McGoldrick, M., & Gerson, R. (1985). Genograms in
Family Assessment (New York: Norton). Computerized versions
also exist: see Gerson, R., & McGoldrick, M. (1985) "The
computerized genogram." Primary Care, 12, 535-45.
(Or search MedLine or PsycLit at a university library for more
recent publications.) I doubt the medically oriented version
would interface neatly with GEDCOM, unless you're handy at patching
things.
A
genogram can show who lived in a household at a given time,
extramarital liaisons, births in chronological order, births
by multiple marriages, who's living (at a cross-sectional point
in time) and who's dead, which relationships were close and
which conflicted, people's occupations, illnesses, and other
relevant data.
There are symbols
that can be used for psychiatric, medical, or substance abuse
histories, but one warning: in the context of family history recording,
it is debatable how appropriate this information is and also it
may make your correspondents much less willing to provide you
information.
One
privacy concern about including psychiatric, medical, or addiction
related information with genealogical data is the risk of discrimination.
According to The Arc (1996, formerly the Association for Retarded
Children in the United States), genetic discrimination is the
differential treatment of individuals or their relatives based
on their actual or presumed genetic differences as distinguished
from discrimination based on having symptoms of a genetic-based
disease. For example, of people who carry the gene for fragile
X, the most common inherited cause of mental retardation, 20%
will never display any form of mental retardation. Yet, because
they carry the gene for fragile X, they could be treated as though
they had mental retardation even though they do not (Boyle, 1995).
The best solution, clearly, is to be mindful of the possibility
that some data can be misused, and to store disease-related data
sets separately from genealogical information which might be published.
Existing professional ethical codes hold that personally identifiable
information contained in clinical records, for example, should
not be made public. However, it is may be helpful for family members
to review and interpret such data, with professional assistance
when indicated, in light of its known or possible bearing to them.
Baker, Kotkin & Yocum (1976) also point out ethical concerns
in gathering family folklore:
Because
of the personal nature of the folklore that you will be collecting,
you should be very careful to protect the privacy and rights
of all family members. Be honest about your intent from the
very beginning. Explain your reasons for doing the research.
Is it a school assignment? Do you simply want to learn more
about your family? Do you plan to publish your findings? The
ultimate disposition of the collection may affect their willingness
to talk about certain subjects (p. 6).
In
the spiritual realm, genealogy can strengthen the connective ties
to the faith of one's ancestors, be those ties Jewish, Christian,
Muslim, Pagan, or other. Some moderns find current spiritual meaning
in reconstructions of ancient religions which may have been suppressed
for centuries. In conducting Celtic genealogical research, for
example, searchers may discover modern relevance in learning the
stories (FitzPatrick, 1991) or reverencing the ancient deities
worshipped in those lands prior to their military subjugation
by Roman armies during the last millennium.
The
precise meaning which the student places upon these old stories
and the old gods and goddesses will vary between listeners, depending
in part upon what other religious influences may have been brought
to bear, but some find spiritual meaning in reclaiming non-patriarchal
mysteries which came near to being lost to the modern ages.
A
searching study of ancestral traditions from any land may lead
the student to examine the state present-day gender relations
or sex roles (Markale, 1986) are viewed; the nature and place
of sexuality and intimate relationships in life (Rue, 1998); current-day
race relations in a nation originally predicated upon a slave-based
economy (Gettleman, 1968); or the degree of reverence which the
person may feel for the earth itself and connection to other life-forms
who inhabit the globe (Campbell, 1968).
More conventional world religions, certain Jewish organizations
for example, have made great strides in recent decades in collecting
and preserving historical records. The Mormon church in Salt Lake
City, though relatively modern in its founding, has become the
unrivaled collector of genealogical data worldwide. The church's
objectives in preserving and interpreting such data are exclusively
spiritual and religious, based upon church teachings that the
Biblical prophet Elijah directs church members to assemble the
records of humanity's ancestors in preparation for a final day
of reckoning and to afford those who have died the ability to
choose to accept Mormon temple ordinances (baptisms, endowments,
and sealing to spouses and parents, pursuant to Mormon priesthood
authority) which are performed daily in the names of the world's
dead by living proxies. Likewise, Mormon volunteers systematically
extract genealogical data from records of all religions and governments
which allow it, to the point that the LDS church possesses the
largest publicly accessible, and undeniably priceless, collection
of genealogical material in the world. The National Archives and
Record Administration is another excellent source. Searchers who
are uncertain where to begin might do well to commence by contacting
the National Genealogical Society, or a local historical association.
Invariably the best place to start a search, when possible, is
with living relatives. The simple exercise of visiting or writing
to older family members (Baker, Kotkin & Yocum, 1976), and
asking them about shared heritage, can be a healing experience
in itself which can prove as memorable and valuable as any information
gathered.
References.
Baker,
Holly-Cutting; Kotkin, Amy; and Yocum, Margaret (1976). Family
folklore: Interviewing guide and questionnaire, Smithsonian
Institute, Family Folklore Program, Office of American Folklife
Studies : Washington, DC.
Bowen, Murray
(1966). The use of family theory in clinical practice. Comprehensive
Psychiatry, 7 : 345-374.
Boyle,
P.J. (1995). Shaping priorities in genetic medicine. Hastings
Center Report, 25 : S2-S8.
Campbell,
Joseph (1968). Creative Mythology: The masks of God. Penguin
Books : New York.
Champagne,
Delight E. (1990). In the Field: The genealogical search as a
counseling technique. Journal of Counseling & Development,
69 : Sept./Oct., 85-87.
Curtis,
Betty J.L. (1984). "The Role of the Family History in Preventive
Medicine: An Introduction for Medical Librarians." Medical
Reference Services Quarterly, 3.4 : 35-44.
FitzPatrick,
Nina (1991). Fables of the Irish Intelligentsia. Penguin
Books : New York.
Gerlack,
Peter K. (1997). Using genograms to help fix membership confusions
and conflicts, Stepfamily Association of Illinois : Oak Park,
IL. http://members.aol.com/sai27/sum/geno2.htm
Gettleman,
Marvin E. [Ed.] (1968). Black Protest: History, Documents,
and Analyses, 1619 to the Present, CBS Publications : New
York.
Gibson,
Richelle (1994). Discovering Your Roots: Extended Family History
with Implications for the Systems Therapist. Progress: Family
Systems Resarch and Therapy, 1994, 3 : 53-67, Encino,
CA : Phillips Graduate Institute. http://www.pgi.edu/gibson.htm
Abstract.
The personal genealogy of Richelle Ann Gibson is studied for
four to five generations. Her Scandinavian and Polish ancestors
immigrated to Chicago, Illinois in the late 1800's and early
1900's. This cross-cultural study investigates the impact of
a transcontinental move on the dislocated family members and
present generations. This research affects the present dynamics
of the family system and is investigated in itself as part of
the study. This genealogical study reconnects the dislocated
family to its past and develops a cultural identity in the nuclear
family of the author. Information was gathered by traveling
back to Chicago and retracing the steps of her ancestors when
they arrived in the United States from Europe. The project is
analyzed from a Bowenian theoretical position and applications
for the family therapist in practice are discussed.
Green, Clarissa P., et al. (1983). Skeletons in the Closet: Exploring personal family background as a prerequisite for family nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 8 : 191-200.
Hart,
Bruce (1995). Re-authoring the stories we work by: Situating
the narrative approach in the presence of the family of therapists.
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 16:
4,181-189. http://home.iprolink.co.nz/~bruceh/article.html
Abstract.
This paper evaluates the work of the narrative school of family
therapy, as developed by Michael White. This is examined in
relation to the field of ideas in family therapy out of which
it emerged, highlighting some of the similarities and differences.
The lack of acknowledgement by narrative school of many of the
commonalties that is shared with others is then considered.
A second order perspective is taken situating the therapist's
theory in the presence of the family of therapists to examine
the development of the narrative approach to theory and practice.
Constructionist contributions are considered in relation to
the development of an eclectic approach where the therapist
adopts a multiverse of theories to draw upon in practice. Development
of theory becomes then a dialogue between different lenses rather
than the development of any truth.
Markale,
Jean (1986). Women of the Celts. Inner Traditions Press
: Rochester, VT, tr. by A. Mygind, C. Hauch & P. Henry (originally
La Femme Celtic [Fr.], 1972, Editions Payot : Montreal,
Quebec.)
McGoldrick,
Mary & Green, Randy (1986). Genograms in Family Assessment.
W.W. Norton & Co.
Lawson,
David M. and Harper Gaushell (1988). "Family Autobiography:
A Useful Method for Enhancing Counselors' Personal Development."
Counselor Education and Supervision, 28 December : 162-168.
Marguerite
deAngeli Library (1998). Helping patrons with genealogy: Understanding
geneaogists, Lapeer MI. http://www.lapeer.lib.mi.us/Library/Genealogy/part4.html
Nelson-Anderson,
Danette L. & Waters, Cynthia V. (1995). Genetic Connections;
A Guide To Documenting Your Individual And Family Health History,
Sonters Publishing. http://www.opengroup.com/open/dfbooks/096/0963915436.shtml
Reed,
Myer S. (1994). Digging up family plots: Analysis of axes of variation
in genograms. Teaching Sociology, 22: 255-259.
Rue,
Thomas S. (1998). Knowing
and sharing your sexual heritage, private web page at http://tomrue.hopto.org/health//heritage.htm.
The
Arc (1996). Facts about genetic discrimination. The Arc (formerly
Association for Retarded Children in the U.S.): Arlington, TX.
http://thearc.org/faqs/discrq&a.html
Vergolias,
George L. (1996). An exploration of psychic closets and Hermes
in the consulting room, 26 October 1996, Donald Williams, LLC
: Boulder, CO. http://www.cgjung.com/articles/vergol1.html
WonderWare,
Inc. (no date). Genogram and Ecomap software (commercial site),
Silver Spring, MD. http://www.clark.net/pub/wware/wware.html
RELATED
G.H.
Schott (2005). Sex symbols ancient and modern: their
origins and iconography on the pedigree, BMJ, 2005;331:1509-1510 (24 December), doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509
Patricia Farrell (2006). Genealogy and health, WebMD: Anxiety and Stress Management, 31 May 2006.
©
1998. Address requests for permission to reprint:
Thomas S. Rue, M.A.,LMHC,CCMHC,CASAC,NCC
E-mail: Tom@Rue-USA.net
PO Box 706, Monticello, New York 12701-0706
http://genealogy.tomrue.net/html/systems.htm
Posted 11-1-1998.
Last updated 7-11-2006.
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